Name : ANIS NURLAILI
Class : IV b
Students’ Number: 2115036
Subject : English Morphology
Definition of Morphemes
What is morpheme?
There are three criteria of morpheme:
It is a word or part of word that has meaning. It can be as a word, or it can be as part of word with its meaning or it can stand alone.
As a word:
Example: play, view, eat, sit etc.
As an example of part of a word:
Greenhouse => it can be devided into two part: green and house with each meaning.
Can not divided into smallest unit. Example: replay (there is consist re and play, this word can not divided again).
When we devided into smallest unit like that example word, word play has its meaning and can stand alone, but there is no meaning for re and it can not stand alone as the word.
It can recurs with a stable meaning in all the word without change the meaning.
Example: play added re to be replay, rewrite (re+write). The meaning is stable of repeating something.
Another example likes: softly, manly, highly, widely. It is therefore obvious that /ly/ must be considered a morpheme.
Free and Bound Morphemes
Basically, there are two kinds of morpheme; they are free and bound. A free morpheme is word that can stand alone with its meaning. Which means a word do not require other words to make it stand alone.
For example, eat, drink, play, sit etc.
A bound morpheme, unlike the free, it is can not stand alone. It should need a letter or group of letter in forming the word that has its meaning.
For example, ante-, re-, -ly, -er, and un.
Here are some examples for bound morpheme; antedate, review, manly, speaker, undo.
Bases
A base morpheme is the part of a word that has principal meaning. For example drinking, remake. A base is a linguistic form that meets one or more of these requirements:
It can occur as an immediate constituent of word (prefix, infix, suffix). Examples: replay, active, writing. If it has been combine with free and bound, it is call as a steam ex: writing (write as a steam).
It is an allomorph (different pronouncation, spelling, grammar). Examples: /s/ cats, /z/ dogs, /ez/ boxes
It is a borrowing from another language. Examples: biometrics, microcosm
Difficulties in Morphemic Analysis
We know that morpheme learn a word that it is form of word, internal structure of word, etc. There are some difficulties in morohemic analysis;
You have your own individual stock of morphemes just as you have a vocabulary that is peculiarly your own.
Persons may know a given morpheme but differ in the degree to which they are aware of it is presence in various words.
Results from the fact that metaphors die as language changes.
Additive meanings, is a problem in itself. Meaning is very elusive, and when morphemes combine in a word, their meaning tend to be unstable and evanescent; they may even disappear altogether.
Affixes
An affix is a bound morpheme that come before or after a base. There are three kinds: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound morpheme that occur before a base, for examples: anti, sub, re, pre, in, im, etc. Like this words: antifreeze, subway, renew, prewar, insecure, impossible, etc. Infixes are bound morpheme that have been inserted within a word. For example: hizouse (house), shiznit (shit), amphibian. Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base. For example: ize, less, s, ed, al. Like this words: realize, careless, eats, dreamed, national.
F. Inflectional Suffixes
The inflectional suffixes can be schematized as follows:
Inflectional Affix
Examples
Names
-S pl
Dogs, oxen, mice
Noun plural
-S sg ps
Boy’s
Noun singular possesive
-S pl ps
Boys’
Noun plural possesive
-S 3d
Vacates
Present third-person singular
-ING vb
Discussing
Present participle
-D pt
Chewed
Past tense
-D pp
Eaten, swam
Past participle
-ER cp
Bolder, nearer
Comparative
-EST sp
Boldest, nearest
Superlative
The inflectional suffixes differ from the derivational suffixes in the following ways, to which there are few exceptions:
They do not change the part of speech.
Examples: sled, sleds (both nouns)
cold, colder (both adjectives)
They come last in a word
Examples: shortened, higher, likely
They go with all stems of a given part of speech
Examples: She eats, drinks, dreams
They do not pile up; only one ends a word.
Examples: written, flakes, working, eats, etc.
Derivational Suffixes
The characteristics of derivational suffixes there are three that will be our immediate concern.
The words with which derivatioanl suffixes combine is an arbitrary matter. Only some derivational that suitable for some words. For examples: friendship, movement, happiness. Ship, ment, ness are examples of derivational suffixes.
In many cases, but not all, a derivational suffix changes the part of speech of the word to which it is added. Act (noun) added –ive tobe Active (adjective), added –ate tobe Activate (verb).
Derivational suffixes usually do not close off a word: that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix. For example: word fertilize added –er, -s tobe fertilizers, closing off the word.
Suffixal Homophones
Homophones is words has same punctuation but they have different meaning, grammartical and spelling. There are four types of suffixal homophones:
(-ER) n : which is attached to verb to form noun, examples: lover, hunder
(-ER) rp : conveys of repetition, examples: glitter, mutter, chatter (the meaning has same)
2. (-ING vb) nominal : which in words like meetings, weddings, readings. This nominal obviously derivational since it permits the addition of an inflection to close it off, the noun plural (-S pl).
(-ING vb) adjective: can be preceded by qualifier like very quite, or by the comparative and superlative words more and most. For example: He bulit a meeting room, word meeting is as an adjective.
3. (-D) past participle: has a homophone in the adjectival derivational. For example: She was excited about her new job
(-D) adjective: is characterized by it is capacity for modifications by qualifiers like very, rather, quite, and by more and most. For example: A rather faded tapestry hung over the fireplace.
(-D) past tense: For example: She taken photo with me yesterday.
4. (-LY) adverbial: For example: She spoke quitely to her grandson
(-LY) adjective: For example: She has a deadly wit
Noun Feminine Forms
English has a small clucth of nouns with feminine derivational suffixes. All but one of these feminizing suffixes (-ster) are of foreign origin. Here is a list of most of them, with examples of the feminine nouns to which thay have been attached and the corresponding masculine form.
Suffix
Masculine
Feminine
-e
Fiance
fiancee
-enne
Comedian
comedienne
-ess
Patron
patroness
-etta
Henry
Henrietta
-ette
Farmer
Farmerette
-euse
Masseur
masseuse
-ina
George
Georgina
-ine
Hero
heroine
-ster
Spinner
spinster
-stress
Seamster
seamstress
-ix
Aviator
aviatrix
These suffixes vary in vitality from –ess, the most productive, to –stress, whoch is completely dead. Two of them –enne and –euse, occur only in words borrowed from French. The –e, also from French, is merely orthographie and is not heard in the spoken word. The –ster is no longer a feminizing suffix but now indicates any person, usually male: gangster, oldster, prankster.
English also has about fifty pairs of words with separate forms for the masculine and the feminine, example: bull, cow, unle, aunt, gander, goose. But these are a matter of lexicography rather than morphology, and we shall pass them by.
Noun Dimunitive Forms
In English six dimunitive suffixes can be found. These are morphemes which convey a meaning of smallness or endearment or both. They are the following:
-ie, -i, -y
as in auntie, Betty, sweetie, Willy
-ette
as in dinette, towelette
-kin, -ikin, -kins
as in lambkin, manikin
-ling
as in duckling, darling
-et
as in circlet
-let
as in booklet, starlet
The first suffix, pronounced /i/ and spelled –ie, -i and –v, is highly productive. It is frequently attached to one-syllable first names to suggest endearment and intimacy, or smallness, as in Johnny, Janey, and Geri. Similiarly, it is attached to common nouns, as in doggie, sweetie, birdie.
The second suffix is also in active use, generally to indicate smallness. Thus, a dinette is a small dining area, and roomette is a small room.
The other four dimunitive suffixes exist in the language as dimunitives but are rarely if ever added to new nouns. In short, they are unproductive, inactive. Furthermore, in some words, like cabinet and toilet, the meaning of dimunitive suffis has faded away to little or no significance.
Allomorphs
Part of morpheme, it is about sound.phonological and symbol but it does not change the meaning.
Example:
Article : a = a chair , a book
an = an umbrella , an apple
Past tense : ed = parted , halted
t = picked
d = wedge
S plural : /s/ = cats
/z/ = dogs
/ez/= boxes
Conditioning, phonological and morphological
Phonological is the nature of preceeding sound.
Example: picked, wedged
Morphological is assosiated with specific word.
Example: oxen, sheep-sheep, sheep
There are 4 types of Allomorphs
Additive allomorphs
Past tense: -t , -d, -ed.
Example; laughed = -D pt /-t/
Played = - D pt /-d/
Wanted = -D pt /-ed/
Plural : -s, -z, -ez
Example: Books = -s pl /-s/
Houses= -z pl /-z/
Zero Allomorphs
There is no change of the morpheme/word
Past tense
Example: I put my bag yesterday
-D pt /Q/
Plural
Example: I have two sheep
-D pl /Q/
Replacative Allomorphs (partial change)
Past tense:
Example: drink drank drunk
-D pt / I >ae / drank
-D pt / I > ^ / drunk
b. plural
example: tooth – teeth
(-s pl />/)
Supplative Allomporhs
Past tense
Example: eat – ate – eaten
ate = -D pt /It > et/
eaten = -D pp /I:t > i:tn/
Plural
Example: mouse = mice
(-s pl /Us > Is/)
Homophones
Word in English which sound alike but differ in meaning. It is same sound different of meaning, spelling and grammatical form.
Example word: to = /tu:/ sentence: it feels = /-z/
too = /tu:/ those frogs /-z/
two = /tu:/
Phones Stemes
Analyze the word that has consonant clusters to have same sounds, (consonant that has same letters).
Consonant clusters: A letter that cames together and that has common meaning.
Some example:
/gl-/ = light, ex: glow, glare, glint, gleam, glisten
/fl-/ = moving light, ex: flame, flash, flare, flambean
/sp-/ = point, ex: sipire, spark, spot, spade
/sl-/ = movement ex: slide, slink, slither, slump
Words
Word is the smallest unit of the language that has meaning, including oral and written. The specific in this material is just focus on word formation.
In counting the word we have to use the Libert’s theory.
There are three types in counting the word:
Word token = it is numbers of all the words, we have to count of all the written word in the text.
Word types = it is the word that has same types, we just count words that has same types became one word.
Lexime = it is the word that has same clasification/one family.
Example: article = a, an , the => one family
On, in, at => one clasification
Simple and Complex Word
Simple word is a word without additing the affixes, it is the word that single free morpheme.
Example: sit, cry, table, put etc
Complex word is the words that combine each other became one word. It can be combination of two bound, a bound, and a free forms.
Example:
Bound+bound morpheme = unless, unable
Free+bound morpheme = likely, looking
Bound+free morpheme = impossible, dislike
Bound+free+bound morpheme = unforgettable
Compound Words
It is a word that has combination of free forms, or two free forms to be one formation word. Usually two, as their immediate constituents/grammatical function.
Example: greenhouse, background, whiteboard
Charateristics of compound word:
Closed compound word which is the formation consist of two free forms. It does not have space.
Example: sweetheart = we can not insetr anything/other word between sweet and heart.
Opened compound word, it is has space between two part, free and other free of word. It is arbitrary matter.
Example: ice cream = but, we can not insert other word in middle of 2 part of word.
Hypenated compound word (Cp) is the word that has stress pattern that different with pattern of grammatical structure.
Example: (´ `) ( - ) = h´ard ball, ba´se ball
Processes of Word Formation
Compounding
It is combination of two or more words that became a single words, and the formulation just free forms. Ex: breakfast, alongside, high school.
Derivation
It is formation of word by combining of derivational affixes or bound morpheme into one word. Sometimes it change the part of speech.
Ex: Re-ask = derivation (bound+free)
Invention
It is the word which for now and then new word are totally invented, like kodak, nylon.
Echoism
Is the formation of words whose sound suggests their meaning.
Example: sound of hiss,, click,, murmur,, whisper.
Clipping
It is which means cutting of the beginning or the end of a word, or both.
Example: profesor=>prof, laboratorium=>lab, influenza=> Flu
Acronymy
It is the process whereby a word if formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words.
Example: Curriculum Vitae=> CV,
Blending
It is process of cutting of two words then became one word and combine each other.
Example: Gasohol=> gasoline+alcohol , Smog=> Smoke+fog
Back formation
The formation of a word from one that looke like its derivative
Example: famous= fame, hedgehopper=hedgehop
Folk etimology
Is a process changing a word, in part or in whole to make it more understandable and more like familiar word.
Antonomasia
Formation of a common noun, a verb, or an adjective from the name of a person or place.
Reduplication
It is the process of forming a new word by repeating the morpheme, usually with a change of vowel or initial consonant. Example: puhpuh, tiptop, hanky-pangky, super-duper.
Twin-words can be devide inti three classes:
The base morpheme is repeated without change.
Ex: clop-clop
The base morpheme is repeated with a change of initial consonant.
Ex: razzle-dazzle, roly-poly
The base mor[heme is repeated with a change of vowel.
Ex: zigzag, ticktock, pingpong
Class : IV b
Students’ Number: 2115036
Subject : English Morphology
Definition of Morphemes
What is morpheme?
There are three criteria of morpheme:
It is a word or part of word that has meaning. It can be as a word, or it can be as part of word with its meaning or it can stand alone.
As a word:
Example: play, view, eat, sit etc.
As an example of part of a word:
Greenhouse => it can be devided into two part: green and house with each meaning.
Can not divided into smallest unit. Example: replay (there is consist re and play, this word can not divided again).
When we devided into smallest unit like that example word, word play has its meaning and can stand alone, but there is no meaning for re and it can not stand alone as the word.
It can recurs with a stable meaning in all the word without change the meaning.
Example: play added re to be replay, rewrite (re+write). The meaning is stable of repeating something.
Another example likes: softly, manly, highly, widely. It is therefore obvious that /ly/ must be considered a morpheme.
Free and Bound Morphemes
Basically, there are two kinds of morpheme; they are free and bound. A free morpheme is word that can stand alone with its meaning. Which means a word do not require other words to make it stand alone.
For example, eat, drink, play, sit etc.
A bound morpheme, unlike the free, it is can not stand alone. It should need a letter or group of letter in forming the word that has its meaning.
For example, ante-, re-, -ly, -er, and un.
Here are some examples for bound morpheme; antedate, review, manly, speaker, undo.
Bases
A base morpheme is the part of a word that has principal meaning. For example drinking, remake. A base is a linguistic form that meets one or more of these requirements:
It can occur as an immediate constituent of word (prefix, infix, suffix). Examples: replay, active, writing. If it has been combine with free and bound, it is call as a steam ex: writing (write as a steam).
It is an allomorph (different pronouncation, spelling, grammar). Examples: /s/ cats, /z/ dogs, /ez/ boxes
It is a borrowing from another language. Examples: biometrics, microcosm
Difficulties in Morphemic Analysis
We know that morpheme learn a word that it is form of word, internal structure of word, etc. There are some difficulties in morohemic analysis;
You have your own individual stock of morphemes just as you have a vocabulary that is peculiarly your own.
Persons may know a given morpheme but differ in the degree to which they are aware of it is presence in various words.
Results from the fact that metaphors die as language changes.
Additive meanings, is a problem in itself. Meaning is very elusive, and when morphemes combine in a word, their meaning tend to be unstable and evanescent; they may even disappear altogether.
Affixes
An affix is a bound morpheme that come before or after a base. There are three kinds: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes. Prefixes are those bound morpheme that occur before a base, for examples: anti, sub, re, pre, in, im, etc. Like this words: antifreeze, subway, renew, prewar, insecure, impossible, etc. Infixes are bound morpheme that have been inserted within a word. For example: hizouse (house), shiznit (shit), amphibian. Suffixes are bound morphemes that occur after a base. For example: ize, less, s, ed, al. Like this words: realize, careless, eats, dreamed, national.
F. Inflectional Suffixes
The inflectional suffixes can be schematized as follows:
Inflectional Affix
Examples
Names
-S pl
Dogs, oxen, mice
Noun plural
-S sg ps
Boy’s
Noun singular possesive
-S pl ps
Boys’
Noun plural possesive
-S 3d
Vacates
Present third-person singular
-ING vb
Discussing
Present participle
-D pt
Chewed
Past tense
-D pp
Eaten, swam
Past participle
-ER cp
Bolder, nearer
Comparative
-EST sp
Boldest, nearest
Superlative
The inflectional suffixes differ from the derivational suffixes in the following ways, to which there are few exceptions:
They do not change the part of speech.
Examples: sled, sleds (both nouns)
cold, colder (both adjectives)
They come last in a word
Examples: shortened, higher, likely
They go with all stems of a given part of speech
Examples: She eats, drinks, dreams
They do not pile up; only one ends a word.
Examples: written, flakes, working, eats, etc.
Derivational Suffixes
The characteristics of derivational suffixes there are three that will be our immediate concern.
The words with which derivatioanl suffixes combine is an arbitrary matter. Only some derivational that suitable for some words. For examples: friendship, movement, happiness. Ship, ment, ness are examples of derivational suffixes.
In many cases, but not all, a derivational suffix changes the part of speech of the word to which it is added. Act (noun) added –ive tobe Active (adjective), added –ate tobe Activate (verb).
Derivational suffixes usually do not close off a word: that is, after a derivational suffix one can sometimes add another derivational suffix and can frequently add an inflectional suffix. For example: word fertilize added –er, -s tobe fertilizers, closing off the word.
Suffixal Homophones
Homophones is words has same punctuation but they have different meaning, grammartical and spelling. There are four types of suffixal homophones:
(-ER) n : which is attached to verb to form noun, examples: lover, hunder
(-ER) rp : conveys of repetition, examples: glitter, mutter, chatter (the meaning has same)
2. (-ING vb) nominal : which in words like meetings, weddings, readings. This nominal obviously derivational since it permits the addition of an inflection to close it off, the noun plural (-S pl).
(-ING vb) adjective: can be preceded by qualifier like very quite, or by the comparative and superlative words more and most. For example: He bulit a meeting room, word meeting is as an adjective.
3. (-D) past participle: has a homophone in the adjectival derivational. For example: She was excited about her new job
(-D) adjective: is characterized by it is capacity for modifications by qualifiers like very, rather, quite, and by more and most. For example: A rather faded tapestry hung over the fireplace.
(-D) past tense: For example: She taken photo with me yesterday.
4. (-LY) adverbial: For example: She spoke quitely to her grandson
(-LY) adjective: For example: She has a deadly wit
Noun Feminine Forms
English has a small clucth of nouns with feminine derivational suffixes. All but one of these feminizing suffixes (-ster) are of foreign origin. Here is a list of most of them, with examples of the feminine nouns to which thay have been attached and the corresponding masculine form.
Suffix
Masculine
Feminine
-e
Fiance
fiancee
-enne
Comedian
comedienne
-ess
Patron
patroness
-etta
Henry
Henrietta
-ette
Farmer
Farmerette
-euse
Masseur
masseuse
-ina
George
Georgina
-ine
Hero
heroine
-ster
Spinner
spinster
-stress
Seamster
seamstress
-ix
Aviator
aviatrix
These suffixes vary in vitality from –ess, the most productive, to –stress, whoch is completely dead. Two of them –enne and –euse, occur only in words borrowed from French. The –e, also from French, is merely orthographie and is not heard in the spoken word. The –ster is no longer a feminizing suffix but now indicates any person, usually male: gangster, oldster, prankster.
English also has about fifty pairs of words with separate forms for the masculine and the feminine, example: bull, cow, unle, aunt, gander, goose. But these are a matter of lexicography rather than morphology, and we shall pass them by.
Noun Dimunitive Forms
In English six dimunitive suffixes can be found. These are morphemes which convey a meaning of smallness or endearment or both. They are the following:
-ie, -i, -y
as in auntie, Betty, sweetie, Willy
-ette
as in dinette, towelette
-kin, -ikin, -kins
as in lambkin, manikin
-ling
as in duckling, darling
-et
as in circlet
-let
as in booklet, starlet
The first suffix, pronounced /i/ and spelled –ie, -i and –v, is highly productive. It is frequently attached to one-syllable first names to suggest endearment and intimacy, or smallness, as in Johnny, Janey, and Geri. Similiarly, it is attached to common nouns, as in doggie, sweetie, birdie.
The second suffix is also in active use, generally to indicate smallness. Thus, a dinette is a small dining area, and roomette is a small room.
The other four dimunitive suffixes exist in the language as dimunitives but are rarely if ever added to new nouns. In short, they are unproductive, inactive. Furthermore, in some words, like cabinet and toilet, the meaning of dimunitive suffis has faded away to little or no significance.
Allomorphs
Part of morpheme, it is about sound.phonological and symbol but it does not change the meaning.
Example:
Article : a = a chair , a book
an = an umbrella , an apple
Past tense : ed = parted , halted
t = picked
d = wedge
S plural : /s/ = cats
/z/ = dogs
/ez/= boxes
Conditioning, phonological and morphological
Phonological is the nature of preceeding sound.
Example: picked, wedged
Morphological is assosiated with specific word.
Example: oxen, sheep-sheep, sheep
There are 4 types of Allomorphs
Additive allomorphs
Past tense: -t , -d, -ed.
Example; laughed = -D pt /-t/
Played = - D pt /-d/
Wanted = -D pt /-ed/
Plural : -s, -z, -ez
Example: Books = -s pl /-s/
Houses= -z pl /-z/
Zero Allomorphs
There is no change of the morpheme/word
Past tense
Example: I put my bag yesterday
-D pt /Q/
Plural
Example: I have two sheep
-D pl /Q/
Replacative Allomorphs (partial change)
Past tense:
Example: drink drank drunk
-D pt / I >ae / drank
-D pt / I > ^ / drunk
b. plural
example: tooth – teeth
(-s pl />/)
Supplative Allomporhs
Past tense
Example: eat – ate – eaten
ate = -D pt /It > et/
eaten = -D pp /I:t > i:tn/
Plural
Example: mouse = mice
(-s pl /Us > Is/)
Homophones
Word in English which sound alike but differ in meaning. It is same sound different of meaning, spelling and grammatical form.
Example word: to = /tu:/ sentence: it feels = /-z/
too = /tu:/ those frogs /-z/
two = /tu:/
Phones Stemes
Analyze the word that has consonant clusters to have same sounds, (consonant that has same letters).
Consonant clusters: A letter that cames together and that has common meaning.
Some example:
/gl-/ = light, ex: glow, glare, glint, gleam, glisten
/fl-/ = moving light, ex: flame, flash, flare, flambean
/sp-/ = point, ex: sipire, spark, spot, spade
/sl-/ = movement ex: slide, slink, slither, slump
Words
Word is the smallest unit of the language that has meaning, including oral and written. The specific in this material is just focus on word formation.
In counting the word we have to use the Libert’s theory.
There are three types in counting the word:
Word token = it is numbers of all the words, we have to count of all the written word in the text.
Word types = it is the word that has same types, we just count words that has same types became one word.
Lexime = it is the word that has same clasification/one family.
Example: article = a, an , the => one family
On, in, at => one clasification
Simple and Complex Word
Simple word is a word without additing the affixes, it is the word that single free morpheme.
Example: sit, cry, table, put etc
Complex word is the words that combine each other became one word. It can be combination of two bound, a bound, and a free forms.
Example:
Bound+bound morpheme = unless, unable
Free+bound morpheme = likely, looking
Bound+free morpheme = impossible, dislike
Bound+free+bound morpheme = unforgettable
Compound Words
It is a word that has combination of free forms, or two free forms to be one formation word. Usually two, as their immediate constituents/grammatical function.
Example: greenhouse, background, whiteboard
Charateristics of compound word:
Closed compound word which is the formation consist of two free forms. It does not have space.
Example: sweetheart = we can not insetr anything/other word between sweet and heart.
Opened compound word, it is has space between two part, free and other free of word. It is arbitrary matter.
Example: ice cream = but, we can not insert other word in middle of 2 part of word.
Hypenated compound word (Cp) is the word that has stress pattern that different with pattern of grammatical structure.
Example: (´ `) ( - ) = h´ard ball, ba´se ball
Processes of Word Formation
Compounding
It is combination of two or more words that became a single words, and the formulation just free forms. Ex: breakfast, alongside, high school.
Derivation
It is formation of word by combining of derivational affixes or bound morpheme into one word. Sometimes it change the part of speech.
Ex: Re-ask = derivation (bound+free)
Invention
It is the word which for now and then new word are totally invented, like kodak, nylon.
Echoism
Is the formation of words whose sound suggests their meaning.
Example: sound of hiss,, click,, murmur,, whisper.
Clipping
It is which means cutting of the beginning or the end of a word, or both.
Example: profesor=>prof, laboratorium=>lab, influenza=> Flu
Acronymy
It is the process whereby a word if formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words.
Example: Curriculum Vitae=> CV,
Blending
It is process of cutting of two words then became one word and combine each other.
Example: Gasohol=> gasoline+alcohol , Smog=> Smoke+fog
Back formation
The formation of a word from one that looke like its derivative
Example: famous= fame, hedgehopper=hedgehop
Folk etimology
Is a process changing a word, in part or in whole to make it more understandable and more like familiar word.
Antonomasia
Formation of a common noun, a verb, or an adjective from the name of a person or place.
Reduplication
It is the process of forming a new word by repeating the morpheme, usually with a change of vowel or initial consonant. Example: puhpuh, tiptop, hanky-pangky, super-duper.
Twin-words can be devide inti three classes:
The base morpheme is repeated without change.
Ex: clop-clop
The base morpheme is repeated with a change of initial consonant.
Ex: razzle-dazzle, roly-poly
The base mor[heme is repeated with a change of vowel.
Ex: zigzag, ticktock, pingpong
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